|
 For
some reason, probably related to a dislike for math, many people
consider the word research and everything the word
suggests as unpleasant. But research can be a valuable
term. It can lead to uncovering the answers to "impossible"
questions.
Two
basic questions the beginning researcher must learn to answer
are how and when to use research methods and
statistical procedures. Developing methods and procedures are 3
valuable tasks, but the focus for the majority of research
students should be on applications.
Although both statisticians and researchers are fundamental in
producing research results, their specialties are different
(keep in mind that one person may serve in both capacities).
Statisticians generate statistical procedures or formulas called
algorithms; researchers use these algorithms to investigate
research questions and hypotheses. The results of this
cooperative effort are used to advance our understanding of the
studied phenomenon.
Scientific research may be defined as a systematic, controlled,
empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among observed
phenomena. This definition contains the basic terms necessary in
defining the method of scientific research, and describes a
procedure that has been accepted for centuries.
However, regardless of its origin, all research begins with a
basic question or proposition about a specific phenomenon. For
example:
Why do viewers select one television program over another? What
sections of the newspaper do people read most often? What types
of magazine covers attract the widest number of readers? Which
types of advertising are most effective in selling specific
types of products? Each of these questions could be answered to
some degree with a well-designed research study. The difficulty,
in many cases, is to determine which type of study, or which
method of collecting data, is most appropriate to answer the
specific question(s).
The user of the method of tenacity follows the logic that
something is true because it has always been true. An example is
the store owner who says, "I don't advertise because my parents
did not believe in advertising." The basic idea is that nothing
changes; what was good, bad, or successful before will continue
to be so in the future.
In the method of intuition, the a priori approach, one assumes
that something is true because it is "self-evident" or "stands
to reason." Researchers who conduct telephone research encounter
this method of knowing frequently. Many respondents assume
(intuition) that all research projects involve some form of
sales. This "fear," along with various consumer groups that wish
to ban all forms of telephone contacts for sales, research, or
solicitation, may be the downfall of telephone research in the
near future.
The
method of authority seeks to promote belief in something because
a trusted source, such as a relative, news correspondent, or
teacher, says it is true. The emphasis is on the source, not on
the methods the source may have used to gain the information.
The claim that "The world is going to end tomorrow because the
New York Times editorial said so" is based on the method of
authority.
The scientific method approaches learning as a series of small
steps. That is, one study or one source provides only an
indication of what may or may not be true; the "truth" is
found only through a series of objective analyses. This means
that the scientific method is self-correcting in that changes in
thought or theory are appropriate when errors in previous
research are uncovered.
 For example, scientists changed their ideas about the planets
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune when, on the basis of information
gathered by the Voyager spacecraft, they uncovered errors in
earlier observations. In communications, researchers discovered
that the early perceptions of the power of the media (the
"hypodermic needle" theory) were incorrect and, after numerous
research studies, concluded that behavior and ideas are changed
by a combination of communication sources and that people may
react to the same message in different ways.
The
scientific method may be inappropriate many areas of life, such
as evaluating works of art, choosing a religion, or forming
friendships, but the method has been valuable in producing
accurate and useful data in mass media research. The following
section provides a more detailed look at this method of knowing.
1.1
Characteristics of the Scientific Method
 Five basic characteristics, or tenets, distinguish the
scientific method from other methods of knowing. A research
approach that does not follow these tenets cannot be considered
to be a scientific approach.
1. Scientific research is public:
Scientific advancement depends on freely available information.
A researcher, especially in the
academic sector, cannot plead
private knowledge, methods, or data in arguing for the accuracy
of his or her
findings; scientific research information must be
freely communicated from one researcher to another.
Researchers, therefore, must take great care in published
reports to include information on their use of sampling methods,
measurements, and data-gathering procedures. Such information
allows other researchers to verify independently a given study
and to support or refute the initial research findings. This
process of replication, discussed in greater detail in Chapter
2, allows for correction or verification of previous research
findings.
Researchers also need to save their descriptions of observations
(data) and their research materials so that information not
included in a formal report can be made available to other
researchers on request.
It is common practice to keep all raw research material for 5
years. This material is usually provided free as a courtesy to
other researchers or for a nominal fee if photocopying or
additional materials are required.
 2. Science is objective:
Science tries to rule out eccentricities of judgment by
researchers. When a study is undertaken, explicit rules and
procedures are constructed and the researcher is bound to follow
them, letting the chips fall where they may. Rules for
classifying behavior are used so that two or more independent
observers can classify particular patterns of behavior in the
same manner. For example, if the attractiveness of a television
commercial is being measured, researchers might count the number
of times a viewer switches channels while the commercial is
shown. This is considered to be an objective measure because a
change in channel would be reported by any competent observer.
Conversely, to measure attractiveness by observing how many
people make negative facial expressions while the ad is shown
would be a subjective approach, since observers may have
different ideas of what constitutes a negative expression.
However, an explicit definition of the term negative facial
expression might eliminate the coding error.
Objectivity also requires that scientific research deal with
facts rather than interpretations of facts. Science rejects its
own authorities if their statements are in conflict with direct
observation.
 3. Science is empirical:
Researchers are concerned with a world
that is knowable and potentially measurable. (Empiricism is
derived from the Greek word for "experience"). They must be able
to perceive and classify what they study and to reject
metaphysical and nonsensical explanations of events. For
example, a newspaper publisher's claim that declining
subscription rates are "God's will" would be rejected by
scientists — such a statement cannot be perceived, classified,
or measured.
This does not mean that scientists evade abstract ideas and
notions — they encounter them every day. But they recognize that
concepts must be strictly defined to allow for observation and
measurement. Scientists must link abstract concepts to the
empirical world through observations, which may be observed
either directly or indirectly via various measurement
instruments. Typically this linkage is accomplished by framing
an operational definition.
Operational definitions are important in science, and a brief
introduction necessitates some backtracking. There are basically
two kinds of definitions. A constitutive definition defines a
word by substituting other words or concepts for it. For
example, "An artichoke is a green leafy vegetable, a tall
composite herb of the Cynara scolymus family" is a
constitutive definition of the concept "artichoke". In contrast,
an operational definition specifies procedures to be followed in
experiencing or measuring a concept. For example, "Go to the
grocery store and find the produce aisle. Look for a sign that
says Artichokes. What's underneath the sign is one."
Although an operational definition assures
precision, it does not guarantee validity. An errant stock clerk
may mistakenly stack lettuce under the artichoke sign and fool
someone. This underlines the importance of considering both the
constitutive and the operational definition of a concept in
evaluating the trustworthiness of any measurement. A careful
examination of the constitutive definition of artichoke would
indicate that the operational definition might be faulty.
 4. Science is systematic and cumulative: No
single research study stands alone, nor does it rise or fall by
itself. Astute researchers always utilize previous studies as
building blocks for their own work. One of the first steps taken
in conducting research is to review the available scientific
literature on the topic so that the current study will draw on
the heritage of past research (Chapter 2). This review is
valuable for identifying problem areas and important factors
that might be relevant to the current study (see Cat-tell,
1966).
In addition, scientists attempt to search for order and
consistency among their findings. In its ideal form, scientific
research begins with a single, carefully observed event and
progresses ultimately to the formulation of theories and laws. A
theory is a set of related propositions that presents a
systematic view of phenomena by specifying relationships among
concepts. Researchers develop theories by searching for patterns
of uniformity to explain the data that have been collected. When
relationships among variables are invariant under given
conditions; that is, when the relationship is always the same,
researchers may formulate a law. Both theories and laws help
researchers search for and explain consistency in behavior,
situations, and phenomena.
Science is predictive. Science is concerned with relating the
present to the future.
In fact, scientists strive to develop
theories because, for one reason, they are useful in predicting
behavior. A theory's adequacy lies in its ability to predict a
phenomenon or event successfully. If a theory suggests
predictions that are not borne out by data analysis, that theory
must be carefully reexamined and perhaps discarded. Conversely,
if a theory generates predictions that are supported by the
data, that theory can be used to make predictions in other
situations. |
The use of the scientific method of research is intended to
provide an objective, unbiased evaluation of data. To
investigate research questions and hypotheses systematically,
both academic and private sector researchers follow a basic
eight-step developmental chain of procedures.
The typical eight-step research process includes:
Step 4 includes the decision of whether to use qualitative
research
The practice of research is divided into two major sectors:
academic and private. Academic and private research are
sometimes referred to as "basic" and "applied" research.
generally applied research; that is, the results
are intended to be used in decision-making situations. Typical
research topics in the private sector include analyses of media
content and consumer preferences, acquisition research to
determine whether to purchase additional businesses or
facilities, public relations approaches to solve specific
informational problems, sales forecasting, and image studies of
the properties owned by the company.
There are other differences between academic and private sector
research.